The Challenge of Homer: School, Pagan Poets and Early Christianity

Written by Karl Olav Sandnes Reviewed By Joshua W. Jipp

The early Christians spent an enormous amount of energy thinking through and articulating their identity vis-à-vis the symbols and practices of Judaism, the synagogue, and the Jewish Scriptures. Countless books have been written (and justifiably so!) detailing how the NT and the early Christians came to grips with, appropriated, and rejected aspects of its Jewish heritage. Less well-known, however, is the story of early Christianity's attempt to navigate its relationship with respect to Greek paideia, and particularly the schooling that was based on pagan literary writings, the foremost being the Homeric epics. Sandnes refers to early Christianity's attempt to negotiate this relationship with Greek paideia as “the Homeric challenge.” Through an impressive array of early Christian writings, Sandnes sets forth the divergent ways in which the early Christians navigated the Homeric challenge and thereby shows how a study of “schooling and education . . . prove particularly helpful in investigating the cultural encounter between Christian faith and Greek culture” (p. 7).

The book is divided into three parts. Part 1 (“School, Homer and Encyclical Education in Antiquity”) ably presents ancient education, often termed “encyclical studies” (the educational process whereby the male citizen becomes encircled with everything he needs to know). Greek paideia and culture were instilled in the male youth through encyclical studies that gave pride of place to Homer, whose epics were thought of by some as inspired and “often considered encyclopedic, revealing his omniscience” (p. 79). Homer's epics formed the backbone to Greek education as students learned how to read and write, for example, by copying names of the Homeric deities and heroes, writing essays on Homeric themes, and memorizing Homeric quotations for rhetorical use. Sandnes notes,”The uncontested position of Homer in encyclical education formed the basis for ancient pan-Hellenism, and Homer's unique position in Greek education contributed considerably to the Greek character of the Roman Empire” (p. 42). Given the canonical status and even divine inspiration accorded to the Homericepics and the fact that his poems contain many stories that were seen as difficult, objectionable, and even immoral, there developed many debates regarding the proper interpretation of Homer by pagans (most famously, of course, Plato). Some turned to allegorical interpretation in order to find moral and philosophical meaning, while others advocated a principle of “use Homer to interpret Homer” where the plain meaning is difficult or objectionable.

Given Homer's role in encyclical studies, Christian parents were faced with a difficult dilemma: abandon encyclical studies due to the “immoral” texts that formed the core of the curricula or adopt a more nuanced and progressive stance that allowed one's children to continue their education. Part 2 (“The Christian AGON over Encyclical Studies in the First Four Centuries”), which is the heart of the book, presents numerous early Christian sources devoted to the strategies the early Christians used to navigate this problem. On one end of the spectrum is the Didascalia Apostolorum, which argues that all pagan literature is to be avoided entirely. The Bible should replace pagan literature and philosophy. If one wants entertaining stories, one can turn to the Book of Kings; if one craves philosophy and wisdom, turn to the prophets; and if one wants to hear about the beginning of the world, read Genesis. On the other end of the spectrum, however, are Clement, Origen, and the Cappadocians, who argued that Christians should not refrain from encyclical studies. Education cannot be avoided, and it prepares one for true wisdom, that is, Christian knowledge. These authors often espouse a strong theology of creation that affirms that God's wisdom is scattered throughout the world and that truth, wisdom, and beauty can be found—albeit in a scattered and deficient form—throughout the pagan texts. Clement notes that as Paul saw the Law as a pedagogue for the Jewish people (Gal 3:24), so philosophy can be a pedagogue for the Greeks to prepare them for Christ. Origen too thinks that wisdom and truth can be found in pagan texts, and he advocates a process of distinctiothat called upon students to discern and distinguish what was good and useful and what was bad and harmful in these texts. He gives the analogy of “Plundering the Egyptians” as biblical warrant for this process and argues that if Christians are rightly discerning they can take the silver and gold of the Egyptians (i.e., encyclical studies) and use it for building the Temple (i.e., preparing Christian theology). Similarly, Basil of Caesarea penned an essay,”To Adolescents,” where he encourages youths to accept what is good and useful in their education and reject the rest, to use their education as preparation for understanding the Bible and theology, and to be like bees who can “separate what is useful and beneficial . . . from what is evil . . . and out of place” (p. 179). Occupying something of middle position are those who shared the concerns of those Christians who rejected encyclical studies, but who also felt that they simply could not be avoided. For example, Tertullian had in his arsenal a plethora of Pauline texts that suggested an uncompromising opposition between revelation and “the wisdom of this world” (cf. 1 Cor 1-3; Col 2:8). There is, for Tertullian, an irreconcilable antithesis between revelation/Christianity and Greek literature.The Greek literature is filled with hidden forms of idolatry, and for this reason Tertullian argues that Christians should not take up the profession of a teacher of encyclical studies. Not only are they forced to teach about the Homeric gods and their myths, but they must also observe pagan festivals from which they receive tips to supplement their salary. Christian students, however, cannot avoid encyclical studies; students, further, are not obligated to commit themselves to the subject matter in the same way the teacher must.

Just as fascinating as the responses to this problem are the strategies and biblical texts the early Christians used to defend their response to the Homeric challenge. Those Christians who felt that encyclical studies were dangerous or idolatrous often pressed the Pauline contrast between divine wisdom and the wisdom of the Greeks (1 Cor 1-2) or raised the Pauline questions “what does righteousness have to do with lawlessness? . . . What harmony is there between Christ and Beliar?” (2 Cor 6:14-15). Those who made the argument for the necessity of encyclical training pointed to Paul's own quotations of pagan authors (see Acts 17:28; 1 Cor 15:32; and Titus 1:12), pressed a strong creation theology (“the earth and its fullness are the Lord's,” Ps 24:1; 1 Cor 10:26), and pointed to Moses' education in the wisdom of the Egyptians (Acts 7:21-22).

Part 3 (“Looking Back to the New Testament”) asks if the Homeric challenge regarding encyclical education is present within the NT texts. Sandnes notes that the issue “never came explicitly to the surface” (p. 275). Given that the rhetorical function of his letters articulates and affirms a new Christian identity for his converts, one should not be surprised that Paul's letters do not provide much evidence for a favorable stance toward participating in encyclical education. Paul does, however, on a few occasions quote pagan authors, and he urges the Philippians to distinguish between what is good and bad (Phil 4:8-9). By and large, however, “Paul fundamentally opposed a logic implying that Christian faith was the culmination of liberal studies and Greek philosophy in particular” (p. 276).

The Challenge of Homer makes an excellent contribution for the student of early Christianity on at least three counts. First, it provides a readable account of ancient education in antiquity. It introduces the role of teachers, how students learned to read and write, the core curriculum, whether girls were allowed to participate in encyclical studies, the relationship between education and the instillation of paideia, and many more issues. Second, it gives special attention to the importance of the Homeric epics in the student's education as well as the strategies employed to interpret Homer. Third, the greatest contribution of the book is the attention to the early Christian sources and their response to the Homeric challenge.While the book is necessarily repetitive (many of the responses and strategies are similar), Sandnes has provided the reader with a handy source-book and commentary on how the early Christians responded to the Homeric challenge.


Joshua W. Jipp

Joshua W. Jipp
Trinity Evangelical Divinity School
Deerfield, Illinois, USA

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